How Effective is the Open Office?

By Kelson Anderson

In a world where teamwork and communication are key, businesses must find a way to incorporate the privacy of the cubicle with the desired interaction of the open office if they hope to succeed. 

The Open Office 

Over the summer I had the opportunity to see the "changing world of business" while working for Marsh and McLennan, a global professional services firm. While there I found that they had recently switched to an open office floor plan, and that most didn't like it. Many complained about how there was less privacy and the office felt much noisier. This really interested me, as I had thought of the cubicle as just another form of a prison cell. I began to wonder how effective companies actually were at utilizing office design to provide places where people can work productively with others. What I have found paints a complicated picture of contradictions.

Although current practice claims that open floor plans are the best way to facilitate communication, there has been little to no research done to quantify this and empirical evidence shows that people actually suffer more from the negatives of the system. In reality we should strive for hybrid offices that combine privacy with communal areas of work that are both easily accessible to suit people according to their needs. Why is this better than cubicles or open offices? To better understand, we need to examine the past before we can move forward.

Hot Spots in business

Blockchain changing the way transactions are done

• Currently transactions require a broker or middle man. Block chain could revolutionize this by allowing transactions to happen in real time instead of waiting around three days (see Blockchain Technology & The Future of Transactions)

Changing the way information is processed

• manual entering of information is going away, however it will become extremely important to be able to handle information systems and the analysis of lots of data (see There will be more demand for technical skills – but that’s not all) 

Communication in the workplace

• Whether its open office, cubicles, or working from home businesses are trying to figure out how to help their employees work and communicate effectively in the digital age (see A sane workplace involves neither cubicles nor an open office) 

I am particularly interested in communication in the workplace and how the layout of the office (or the lack thereof) affects how people discuss ideas and issues. Although there is currently a push for open offices, studies have been done to measure the effectiveness of this setup and have found it to be less effective which I found to be very interesting. Working from home has also been shown to be both effective and ineffective depending on the type of person that does it. 

Prophet of his time: Churchill's call to stand together

In 1946 with the damage caused by World War II fresh in everyone's mind, most people were thinking of peace, proclaiming that the "war to end all wars" had ended. No one wanted to hear of the potential for another war, but in March when Winston Churchill spoke at Westminster College in Fulton Missouri, he came as one looking ahead to the next great problems that the Western world would face. As he examines the future based upon the past he shows how it is only through working together and seeking to avoid a nuclear war that the world will survive.

Churchill at Fulton Missouri

Churchill begins by recognizing his location and audience and humanizing himself, proclaiming that these were his thoughts, and not necessarily Britain's. He continues by identifying his audience, praising America and its democracy, accepting them as the superpower of the world and essentially tells them that "with great power come great responsibility." He then uses assonance to describe the three important qualities necessary to promote democracy: "constancy of mind, persistency of purpose, and the grand simplicity of decision."

With this framework in mind, he presents the crux of his speech, the "over-all strategic concept" for the future, with three steps to bringing peace and identifying two main aggressors - war and tyranny. He personifies them as "gaunt marauders," that "swoops down" upon the hardworking people of the west while the threats of communism and Asia "glare them in the eye." This helps the audience visualize what is occurring under communist rule and the threat it poses to Western democracy.

As he continues to flesh out the three steps necessary for avoiding war, specifically addressing the need for the United States to stand with Europe in a world organization (UNO), reminding without need to say how well the United Nations worked without the US. In what is one of the most powerful parts of his speech he declares that they all needed to ensure that it would not be a sham or "a frothing of words" or "a cockpit in the Tower of Babel" but a "true temple of peace." He concludes this part by calling for camaraderie among English speaking people, uniting Britain and America with thier desire for peace.

As he moves to the second part of his speech, Churchill famously identifies the "iron curtain" that had fallen to demonstrate the ideological differences between communism and democracy. He uses repetition to both call for American cooperation and to prevent the dangers of another war breaking out. 

By identifying these major problems and proposing cooperation and understanding going forward Churchill advocates for deliberate action through a united body as the way to avoid war. Although he may not have been heeded on every account, Churchill undeniably helped identify the problems that would come as the world moved forward and solutions that would help bring peace. 

The Seventh Art and La Belle Epoque

La Belle Epoque, as people would later call the period leading up to World War I, was a time of discovery. People had been playing with the idea of moving pictures since the 1820s, but it was not until the 1880s that discoveries really began to take place that created the ideal situation for film. There was fierce competition to create a viable way to show moving pictures, causing people from England, America, France, and many other places to compete against and build off each other. Thomas Edison in America was particularly infamous for the amount of clout he used in trying to monopolize the industry before it had even begun. However it was the Lumiere brothers in France that would ultimately succeed in creating the first projected motion picture that could be sold to a wide audience. 

The original Cinematographe 

At the heart of the history of film is the idea of, bricolage. The closest English equivalent would be a bringing together of bits and pieces. The cinematographe that the Lumiere brothers "invented" was merely the reflection of a longer chain of changes to previous creations. Newton's statement that he "stood on the shoulders of giants" greatly reflects this period of history. Like many other inventions of the time, the end result reflected the work of hundreds of hands. 

Initially film focused on presenting reality. The first films were documentaries, but they also presented their own narrative through framing and shot. However La Belle Epoque generation's desire for entertainment quickly manifested itself in film through one of the greatest early filmmakers, Meliese. He is best known for Le voyage dans la lune, which was the first fantasy, science fiction, and comprehensive story told through film. Many others would come afterwards but there is still something captivating in watching these early films. This semester I have been studying French and Italian cinema and have come to have a greater appreciation for early film and its contributions to society. Now looking at film and its impact specifically on the gilded era has helped me understand better how film came about and why the two most important filmmakers of the time, Lumiere and Meliese, focused on documentation and Entertainment. Documentation was linked both to the greater desires of the world of science in its continued quest to understand the world around it - the first "moving pictures" was actually of a horse in motion as well as people's desire to improve the world and show the real world to others. The entertainment industry was a growing phenomenon as modern inventions helped make life easier and gave people more time to do what they wanted. Meleise captures these desires for the fantastic through pyrotechnics, special effects, strange transitions, and story driven narratives. 

Today film is a staple of entertainment consumption for people world wide, but from its humble beginnings people have sought to use the medium to express society's needs and desires by transporting us to other worlds. These other worlds may be just down the street or in another universe, but in each in their own way reflect society's problems, desires, and fantasies. 

The Mountain King and I

For me, music is has become part of who I am. It can both reflect my mood and shape it. I have played the piano since I was five years old and although I have much less time to practice now, I have come to find it relaxing. Over the past couple years my love for romantic/classical music has grown immensely. One of my favorite pieces is In the Hall of the Mountain King by Edvard Grieg. 

I'm not sure what initially drew me to this song, the melody itself is relatively simply as it is mostly a growing crescendo of the original refrain, resulting in an epic climax that brings the piece to an end. Perhaps what draws me to it is in the name itself, the imagery of what is happening in this hall of the fantastical Mountain King. I have always been drawn towards worlds that are fantastical in nature and this piece is a musical story, providing in its own way another world to delve into.

And all of that was before I learned about the whole story, about Peer Gynt and Edvard Grieg. Peer Gynt is notable by itself as a romantic play with the beginnings of modernism. It follows the peasant anti-hero Peer from his downfall to his redemption. It is nationalistic in that it is a call back to Norwegian heritage and story, while also providing social commentary in a satirical way. But it is Edvard's music, which was created when the author, Henrik Ibsen wanted to dramatize his poetry, that really remains with us today. The dramatic contrasts in pieces like the In the Hall of the Mountain King with its nearly imperceptible beginnings to its swelling end is powerful and helps tell a part of the larger drama that plays out across the 90 minutes of music made for Peer Gynt.

For me this piece represents exploration, into new genres of music as well as into new parts of our lives. Although I had been practicing and performing music by comparable composers of the time, this was one of the first romantic pieces that i really enjoyed listening to. It also reflects how life can feel, at first we may be very quiet, trying to explore and understand more without making to much of an impact. Then something changes, for better or worse things have changed and it will not be the same. This can be both good or bad, the music and life leaves that up to us to decide. 

I'm broken and the doctors don't know how to fix it

Something Big - White Male Privilege 
As a white American I honestly thought for a while that racism ended a while back and Obama was proof of the fact. As a male, I thought sexism ended sometime before I was born and that suffrage was the end of feminism. Now I have seen that I was mistaken. I don't know how big these issues are, as I am neither of color nor a woman, but from the little insights people give me into their lives, I feel another bubble pop and I am surprised. These problems haven't been fixed, they have evolved. We think we improve, but really we find new ways to interpret old fears. The Irish, the Italians, and now its the Southern Americans. Somebody is always coming to hurt America. Even in writing all this down here I can't even begin to address the problems that we face, and it simply feels like a futile exercise. Will we ever truly believe that "all men are created equal?" But even in the questioning half of the population is forgotten. "Its just an expression for humanity," some may say, "does it matter?" is my response, it still leaves women out.
Something Broken: My shoulder
A year and 3 months ago my shoulder started to bother me while I was a missionary for the church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. At first it wasn't to bad, but over time, life became excruciatingly painful. Doctors had no clue what it was. Physical therapy did nothing but waste time. Drugs had no effect. Even after coming home doctors cannot help me fix this problem. To this day I wake up with shoulder pain and go to bed feeling this same pain. How is it that we have "come so far" with medicine and yet my shoulder can't be fixed?

North Reflection Pool

Something artistic or man-made - Finding peace while surrounded in a noisy New York street
One of my earliest memories is of 9/11. Imprinted forever in my mind is the look of shock and terror on my parents face. After returning from my mission I took some time and visited the reflection pools at the 9/11 memorial site. Despite there being hundreds of tourists and fellow New Yorkers around me, when I got to the pools life seemed peaceful, time seemed to slow and for a moment I felt at peace. Life goes inexorably on, but in that moment man's offering helped me connect with the divine as I remember how fragile life is and how simple it can be to change the lives of millions forever.
Something Mysterious - The effects of too much Estrogen
Recently while listening to a podcast I came across a fascinating subject - estrogen. To hear the way it was described, we are inundated with the chemical, receiving far more of it than is healthy for us. But I still don't really understand how it is that we get it, or what exactly it does to us that is so bad, aside from cancer. However I got a different chapstick and stopped using plastic water bottles, opting for metal instead. I remember the fear when I found out this chemical can be found in hundreds of common items and absorbed into our bodies (wait, How?). I don't know why but plastics 2,4, and 5 are ok to use while the others are not. I don't know why, but soy and flax contain estrogen so I avoid them like the plague. I don't know what glyphosates, astrophenes, benzafinones, lenolium, or polyester are but I avoid all those too. And stay away from carpets.

Image credits: 9/11 memorial pools by Amy Dreher

The Darwinian universe and the supernatural

Of all the great detectives, surely none is better known that Sherlock Holmes. There is something magnetic that pulls us toward his logical way of thinking, his ability to make sense out of the senseless. The Hound of Baskervilles is the third novel written by Sir Conan Doyle about Sherlock but is significant and different from his other books for several reasons. Although Doyle had already killed Sherlock Holmes (spoilers for a book that is over a century old?) in his previous novel and had taken an 8 year break to focus on other writings, Doyle decided to return to the narrative. Although he had originally intended to use other characters, he found that Sherlock fit too well, resulting in a structured and sustained narrative that most detective novels rarely achieve. 

The Hound of Baskervilles is a blend of the detective, Gothic, and even thriller novel. As we are taken outside of London into the Devonshire moor, far away from civilized society we feel a loss of order. The sweeping and gloomy landscapes present in Gothic novels adds to the tension as we can see primal nature exerting its influence over our small and insignificant lives. There is a clear contrast between the present danger of the hound and the timeless universe and sense of finality as all living things eventually die, creating a sense of a Darwinian universe. It also makes his characters more vulnerable and alone, in a way that could never be achieved while in a city like London.

Yet it is ultimately a careful and reasoned approach that is able to overcome the supernatural. We are shown through Watson that although it may be easy to dismiss the very idea of supernatural powers in the safe "modernized" world, when confronted with primordial nature far away from the warmth and safety of our own homes, it is easy to start wondering. This is something that still resonates with me today. All to often when we are frightened, alone, and in the dark, we forget science and reason and let our imaginations run wild. In our society we are insulated from most of the dangers of the natural world and it is easy to be detached. Yet there is still a primal part of our nature that is awakened when we are out and something goes bump in the night.

In the end, it is Sherlock's modern, empirical, and scientific mind are able to show us that our fears. When confronted with these tools, we are shown that our fears were nothing more than illusion. Order and security are returned as we are taken away from the moor, to London and civilization, and back to comfy chairs next to fireplaces to the backdrop of a busy city.

The Hound of Baskervilles by Sidney Paget is a public domain image. 

Searching for order

Change was abundant during the enlightenment era. People find out that the universe doesn't revolve around them, there are discussions of how religion may not have all the answers,while there is also a reexamination of the past and of truths that had not been questioned before. All this challenging of the created for some a sense of confusion, which led many to seek for some concrete order in the world. This need manifested itself in many different parts of society.

One way that this search manifested itself was in language. In 1755 Samuel Johnson published the first modern dictionary in English. Due to the explosion of printing and rising rates of literacy books, pamphlets, and even newspapers were becoming more available to the public. With this came the need to have some kind of order in grammar, definition, and spelling. Others had published dictionaries in the past but there had been several issues with them. The main problems that came from these dictionaries was, in fact, a lack of order. They were often poorly organized and had little research put into them, usually providing a reference to some of the more "difficult" words, that weren't used very often. At the same time, people were often unsure how to use the words given in early attempts. Johnson's dictionary showed the meaning of words by using them in sentences, described how they were used, and painstakingly ensured that words as thoroughly defined as possible. 

How fit with the rest of the Enlightenment? To begin, Johnson provided the most comprehensive reference for the English language, and was the dictionary used for the next 150 years. It is also indicative of the growing need for accuracy, order, and the need to know definitions and how to properly use words. It also became a model that some other European countries used. 

From Cicero to Protestantism, The Renaissance and Reformation

Using the titles Reformation and Renaissance to describe periods of history often gives a misrepresentation of the facts, as many assume that they happened as isolated events. In reality, the Protestant Reformation occurred within the larger framework of the Renaissance and was a really a product of its time, with a few key differences that set it apart from the rest of the Renaissance.

Erasmus, one of the most
influential Humanists

The Renaissance period was a time of rediscovery and growth that created an environment in which a movement like the Reformation would be possible. One of the central ideas of the Renaissance, "ad fontes" or a return to the original material, would influence a core tenant of the Reformation, "sola scriptura" (only scripture). This was the belief that there was not a need for priests because people could turn to the source material, the Bible. For Renaissance Humanists in particular the idea of returning to the source material was vital as they rediscovered Ancient Greek and Latin authors like Cicero and Plato, who helped them realize the full potential of the Latin language and how much power language could have when rhetoric is used . Likewise, as people like Martin Luther saw a disconnect between the Catholic Church and the teachings of the bible, they too sought a return to the source.



Along with a rediscovery of the ancients, came a rediscovery of mankind. The Catholic Church's interpretation of the Bible had led people in the middle ages to conclude that this life was to be endured and that the body was corrupted. These ideas were challenged when Renaissance authors rediscovered Greco-Roman tradition, which glorified the body and the feats of man. Men like Petrarch and Erasmus were profoundly influenced by this and there was a fundamental shift as people began to focus more on this life as a sense of individualism and pride in one's work grew. Cried Shakespeare through his play "What a piece of Work is Man!" and Giovanni Mirandola writes in his Oration on the Dignity of Man

Man's Place in the universe is somewhere between the beasts and the angels, but because of the divine image planted in him, there are no limits as to what man can accomplish...

Reformation and the beginnings of a secular west

John Donne's idea that "no man is an island" can be thought of in another sense, events do not happen in isolation. Sir Isaac Newton said for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The reformation was a response to the unchecked corruption that had been occurring for centuries, and the counter-reformation was the Catholic's response. But there are other reactions that occurred during this time that were just as important. One of these was the economic changes that occurred in Europe. 

Castles and other buildings were
made in greater quantities due
to by governments

An interesting change in power occurred when the Catholic church began to lose power in Europe. Until the reformation, the Catholic Church had held a monopoly on religion and had used that power politically, but as that hold began to weaken, a vacuum was created. The protestants tried, in part, to gain hold of this power, but contending with the Catholic Church took up most of their time, allowing monarchs like the German Princes to seize a great deal of the resources left in the wake of the religious fighting, such as land and revenue from monastic guilds. This was reflected in new constructions during that time, away from the religious and towards the interests of the secular lords (see Cantoni). Although the reformation was a religious movement, it had ramifications that changed the rest of Europe by breaking the political, economic, and religious hold the Catholic Church had, indirectly making way for future secularization.  

Although all of this does impact to a certain degree today, we also face different sorts of reformations. The people's voices are being heard, and groups have been formed to champion new issues that have come up, as evidenced by the #me too movement, black lives matter, and the LGBT community to name a few. Regardless of how one's personal stance on these issues, the decisions made to today will have consequences that will shape our country in both obvious and obscure ways.  A more recent example of this are some of the consequences of the civil right movement. If you are interested in finding out more about this go here. 

She's a Witch!

By the sixteenth century, Europe had experienced a great deal of change. People had rediscovered the works of ancient Greek and Latin writers, causing an explosion of art and culture. People were exploring the world, information was being spread faster than ever before thanks to the invention of the printing press. This also helped Europe to go through a religious reawakening, the reformation. Yet despite all of these advancements, one of the tragedies of history took place; the Witch hunts. What pushed Europe to burn over 30,000 people on the charges of witchcraft? Well the answer is still discussed, but a combination of social, political, and religious conflict combined with a healthy dose of misogyny is a good start.

To begin, Europe was at this time was "fraught with wars and rebellions, with economic depression and famine, and with social violence" to quote Drogin. Although many wars occurred during this time, one of the most influential and devastating was the 30 years war. in this long and complicated war, over a third of the German population was killed. Around this time there many farming issues, caused in part by what has been called the "little ice age," which caused colder winters and shorter crop growing seasons. 

At this same time, there was a great deal of religious instability caused by the reformation. The reformation may not have directly caused the witch hunts, since both Catholics and Protestants conducted witch hunts. There was certainly fear-mongering on both sides though, starting with the protestants who were more wary of witches. It should be noted that the common people had fostered a belief in witches for centuries, but during this time period people had an increased fear in the devil and that the devil could affect the world around them. 

It should also be noted that before this time period, both men and women were accused of witchcraft, but during the witch hunts, it was primarily women that faced the blame. This was due in part to a book called Malleus Maleficarum. It was not the only book published about witchcraft and did not start the Witch hunts, but it created a foundation for treating witchcraft as a heretical offense. It was the best known of its kind, thanks to invention of the printing press, which enabled people to widely distribute the book. This book claimed that witchcraft was mostly found among women because women were more extreme in both good and evil, had weak intellects and that women's lust is the cause of witchcraft. 

All of these factors let to a climate where all kinds of difficulties made people try to find a reason for them all and witches were the perfect target to blame. The Witch trials would have its greatest impact during the seventeenth century, but continued into the early eighteenth century.  

Photo credit: The Witch, No. 1 by Joseph E. Baker in 1892 is under public domain

Which is the Greatest Commandment?

Everyone loves a good underdog story. Whether its 13 scrappy colonies seeking liberty from an oppressive monarchy an ocean away, Martin Luther challenging the incredibly powerful Catholic Church, or Rocky going a full 15 rounds with Apollo Creed, we love to hear about overcoming what seem to be insurmountable odds and sticking up for the little guy. Yet to often we let our love of stories obscure the details of history when they go against the narrative. Such is the case in the reformation.

To be sure, before the reformation the Catholic Church as a worldly institution was powerful and corrupt, labeling those who threatened their power as heretics and even having enough clout to bend empires to their will. Martin Luther and later other reformers, such as John Calvin, John Knox, and William Tyndale brought about an important religious change that would make it possible later for religious freedom. However, during sixteenth century protestants could be just as intolerant as their Catholic counterparts. Martin Luther, who called for religious tolerance also advocated for the persecution of Anabaptists (another Protestant sect that believed in adult baptism). Luther also persecuted Catholics and Jews. Said he:

Heretics are not to be disputed with, but to be condemned unheard, and whilst they perish by fire, the faithful ought to pursue the evil to its source, and bathe their hands in the blood of the Catholic bishops, and of the Pope, who is a devil in disguise.

John Calvin proved to be even less tolerant, declaring that blasphemy and heresy were punishable by death because they insulted God. He went as far as to say that those who didn't kill heretics and blasphemers were just as guilty and worthy of death. Other instances include the bitter persecution that took place in England as both Catholics and Protestants killed each other under various Kings and Queens. The later Puritan movement that fled to America seeking religious freedom, did not allow for other faiths and forced out people like Roger Williams, who would later establish Rhode Island.

In saying all of this I do not wish to put down the reformers or their sacrifices, but show that even good causes can be lead astray. Too often today we provide our own narrative of events instead of looking at arguments objectively, making it so that anyone who opposes our views must be mistaken at the very least and a malignant forces for evil at the worst. It can be hard to recognize our own faults, to truly give others respect and the ability to exercise their rights, and it is easy to get swept up in the waves of righteous fury. This is why we can never forget that we need to remember Jesus Christ's admonition to "Love the Lord thy God" and to "love thy neighbor as thyself."
Image credits: Martin Luther by Luchas Cranach the Elder 1529. This photograph is in the public domain.

Why do we resist Inventions?

Today when we think about revolutionary inventions throughout history the printing press is one of the first that comes to mind (especially if you have been studying the Renaissance recently) and why wouldn't it? The printing press significantly increased the rate at which books could be copied, making it possible for a greater audience to have access to literature and all that it entails. Yet at the time the printing press was invented, some people balked at the idea with reasons ranging from fear that it would impair learning by making it more accessible to everyone, to seeing the printed word as somehow inferior to that of the written. Yet this is hardly a unique scenario, you might be just as surprised to find out that at various times people ridiculed light bulbs, umbrellas, and even coffee. My question in all of this is simple, why?

To begin it is important to realize that hindsight can cause us to easily see flaws in the past and write away the people that hesitate to embrace a new invention as foolish or worse. Context is important and seeking to understand the reasons why people rejected inventions can perhaps help us better understand why we do the same today. 

The simplest answer seems to be fear, particularly fear of the unknown. When facing new and unfamiliar ideas. we often want to bring thing back to the known and comfortable as quickly as possible. When new ideas or inventions are introduced in a frame of reference that helps us see its usefulness and can quickly be adopted into our view of the world, we can more quickly adapt to it. The more difficult this becomes, the longer the time required for things to take hold. It is enough to examine our world today. At one end, people look forward with optimism to a future where human and AI work together with incredible inventions that can't even be imagined, while at the other end people fear that Armageddon is lurking around the corner and that we will eventually create the monster that will destroy us. 

When looking at the technological progression of the last 100 years, the progress is staggering. Yet often upon examination what often caused us to not adopt a technology sooner was that our current frame of reference simply didn't allow for it. The same has been true throughout history. Understanding the potential of something new is difficult, but with time we move forward.

Image credits: “Ipad It Smash” by pixabay is licensed under CCO. 

Giovanni Boccaccio and the Beginnings of the Renaissance

Giovanni Boccaccio 

In labeling and generalizing periods of history there is a tendency to compartmentalize history into neat segments that are only slightly connected by key events. In looking into the life of Giovanni Boccaccio I was able to shift from this frame of reference by taking a step into the life of one man who's literary works greatly helped bring about the beginnings of the Renaissance.

Boccaccio's early life was greatly affected by several important transitions that had begun to occur, specifically the rise of the mercantile class. This new wave of economic prosperity made possible the intellectual growth that would later spur the renaissance as people began to look back to Greco-Roman culture. Boccaccio spent several formative years in Naples, which at this time was a central hub for both commerce and culture. It is here that he began to write Il Filostrato and Tesieda, works that he wanted to be on par with the writings of Latin literature. His early writings would influence other authors such as Chuacer. 

Between 1348-1353 Boccaccio probably wrote his masterpiece, The Decameron. It was heavily influenced by the black plague, which killed much of his family. The introduction provides a rather a somber and horrific scene of death, caused by the black plague. In it he says

 “No human wisdom or foresight had any value…just as useless were the humble supplications to God given not one time but many times in appointed processions, and all the other ways devout people called on God; despite all this, at the beginning of the spring of that year, that horrible plague began with its dolorous effects in a most awe-inspiring manner…it began with swellings in the groin and armpit, in both men and women, some of which were as big as apples and some of which were shaped like eggs, some were small and others were large…the body would be covered with dark and livid spots…these were certain indications of coming death.” 

This bleak and somber backdrop are contrasted with much of the actual content in the story. Each day for 10 days 10 stories are told around a different theme by the 10 young people who fled the city to escape the black plague. Many of the stories are comical or light. What really defines the Decameron however is the underlying themes of luck, man’s powers and his limitations and the absence of divine intervention.

Bocaccio also met Petrarch in 1350 and together they laid the groundwork for the beginning of the humanist movement. Boccaccio came to embody the early renaissance with his studies and translations of classical texts and also his work to elevate the modern language and enrich society with tales that highlighted the everyday experience with its ups and downs. Boccaccio, and his works, were an important part of the beginning of the renaissance that helped make possible the other improvements that occurred as the renaissance fully developed.